The influence of modernization theories declined in the 1960, as the effect of ECLA’S failure to explain and improve the economic development of Latin America countries. In the early of 1960, Latin America was suffered with high inflation, unemployment, currency devaluation, declining term of trade, and other economic problems. Dependency school was emerged as the respond to ECLA’s failure and received a warm welcomed. Dependency school also response the crisis of Marxist theories and the decline of modernization theories.

The ECLA and Neo-Marxism

The dependency school concepts were influenced by the failure of ECLA programs and Neo-Marxism concepts. The ECLA (Economic Commission for Latin America) was founded in 1948 by the work of Argentine economist Raul Prebisch. He assumed that the root of developmental problem of Latin America was the schema of the international division of labor. According to Raul Prebich, Latin America should undergo the industrialization scheme to develop their countries. By using this scheme, he suggested the Import Substitutions Industrialization (ISI) sstrategies to improve Latin America economic. The other concepts, which were influenced the dependency school, were the neo-Marxist view. Neo-Marxist views are different with orthodox Marxist in many perspectives.

Frank: The Development of Underdevelopment

Frank, firstly, criticized the modernization theories because it just explained the internal factor that influenced the economic development in the third world countries, such as the tradition culture, overpopulation, little investment, and lack of achievement motivation. (Harrison: 1988) He also argued that the modernization school neglected the other factor that shaped the underdevelopment of the third world such as the colonialism of the western countries, which promoted the backwardness of third world.

He distinguished three main stages or periods that shaped the underdevelopment in the third world: the mercantilist (1500-1700), the industrial capitalist (1770-1870), and the imperialist (1870-1930). In capturing the historical experience of the degeneration of the third world, he formulates “the development of underdevelopment”. In his work, he promoted what he is called as “metropolis-satellite” model to explain how the mechanism of underdevelopment in third world countries.

Dos Santos: The Structure of Dependence

This relationship is unequal because the dependent countries have to transfer their surplus to the dominant countries. This transfer produces limitation of the development of the dependent countries. According to Santos, there are three historical form of dependence. First, colonial dependence. The commercial and financial capital of dominant countries with colonial state controlled of land, mines and human resources. Second, financial-industrial dependence. The dominant countries dominate the dependent countries in term of financial and industrial. Dependence countries only produce the raw material and agriculture products  for the dominant countries. Third, technological-industrial. As the industry sectors were emerged in developing countries, the dependency to the technology from the dominant countries also increases.

Amin: The Transition to Peripheral Capitalism

Amin promotes the theory of transition to peripheral capitalism. He stressed on the relationship between central and peripheral economic structure. This theory has several key assertions. First, transition will produced crucial decline in the third world. Second, peripheral capitalism was characterized with distortion in export activities. Third, in the third world, the development of tertiary sector produced slow industrialization, increasing unemployment, and migration from the rural area to urban areas. Fourth, the multiplier effect of investment does not work in periphery, moreover this just increase the multiplier effect in center by transferring the profit from export. Fifth, the development of the periphery is not the beginning of earlier stage of development in the center. Sixth, the peripheral should challenge the center capitalism, in order to increase economic growth. Seventh, the specific form of underdevelopment depends upon the nature of the pre-capitalist formation, and the periods in which the peripheries were integrated into the capitalist world system.

Conclution

Members of dependency school shared basic assumptions. First, generap pattern of development from the dependency school is applicable in all third world countries. Second, dependency school determines that the external factors, such as historical heritage of colonialism and the unequal international division of labor, rather than the internal factors. Third, analyzed from the economic perspective. Fourth, dependency treated as a component of regional polarization of the global economy. Fifth, dependency is seen as incompatible with development.

Pembangunan itu memiliki dua akar, yakni: akar praxis dan akar teoritis. Praxis adalah konsep yang menggambarkan praktek-praktek yang terjadi saat ini, masa lalu, dan masa depan. Dunia praxis/praktek itu berbeda dengan dunia teori. Dunia teori itu ada dalam pikiran manusia, sedangkan dunia itu adalah aktivitas kehidupan manusia sehari-hari. Sedangkan menurut Menurut P. W. Preston, pembangunan itu mengakar pada tiga peristiwa yang saling berkaitan, yakni: kolonialisme, imperalisme, dan kapitalisme. Eropa merupakan benua yang dihuni beragam etnis, ras, dan suku bangsa. Tiga peristiwa penting di Eropa yang menyebabkan perubahan peradaban manusia adalah Revolusi Perancis, Revolusi Industri di Inggris, munculnya mazhab Protestanisme.

            Untuk memahami kolonialisme kata kuncinya adalah eksplorasi, perang, eksploitasi sumberdaya, dan kontrol politik). Tujuan Kolonialisme sendiri yaitu pengeksploitasian ekonomi dari sumber daya alam negara jajahan, penciptaan pasar baru bagi penjajah, dan perluasan daerah jajahan di luar batas-batas nasional. kolonisasi merupakan instrument imperialisme. Atau, kolonialisme merupakan bagian tak terpisahkan dari politik imperalisme. Tujuannya adalah memperluas klaim wilayah negara penjajah di atas bumi ini. kolonialisme merupakan bagian tak terpisahkan dari politik imperalisme. Tujuannya adalah memperluas klaim wilayah negara penjajah di atas bumi ini.

            Salah satu definisi pembangunan adalah perubahan sistematis dari satu situasi ke situasi lain yang di anggap lebih baik. Yang dimaksud dengan perubahan sistematis itu adalah perubahan itu harus terencana, terukur, dan meliputi seluruh aspek kehidupan manusia (istilah kerennya: holistic atau komprehensif). Terencana artinya harus pihak yang berperan sebagai perencana. Yang dimaksud dengan bergerak adalah Bergerak itu bisa mundur (misalnya, krisis ekonomi Indonesia pada 1998) atau maju (misalnya, system politik Indonesia kian demokratis sejak 1998). Varian lain yang mungkin adalah: mundur ke samping kiri, mundur ke samping kanan, maju ke samping kiri, maju ke samping kanan, meloncat ke depan, meloncat ke belakang.

            Untuk mengukur pembangunan kita menggunakan alat. Alat ukur itu bisa dibuat sendiri dengan berpedoman kepada metode penelitian (misalnya, menggunakan skala Likert) dan juga bisa di pinjam dari lembaga lain. Pembangunan bukan produk proses teknis-administratif belaka, tetapi produk politik dengan segala dinamikanya. Filsafat adalah induk ilmu pengetahuan. Manfaat pengetahuan ada 3 yaitu :

o   Manfaat untuk kalangan Ilmuwan

o   Manfaat untuk para pembuat kebijakan

o   Manfaat untuk masyarakat.

            Kolonialisme menciptakan struktur produksi yang tidak didisain untuk mengeksploitasi keunggulan komparative potensial sistem perekonomian dan/atau orang-orang yang dijajah. Kolonialisme menciptakan struktur produksi yang tidak didisain untuk mengeksploitasi keunggulan komparative potensial sistem perekonomian dan/atau orang-orang yang dijajah.

• Sistem hukum (hukum para pendatang dianggap lebih superior daripada hukum yang dimiliki penduduk pribumi),
• sistem komunikasi (pelabuhan, jalan, jalan kereta api, telegraf, dll),
• sistem ekonomi (perbankan, perusahaan, dll),
• sistem sosial-budaya (perumahan, kesehatan, polisi, dll)

            Asal mula kolonialisme Diawali oleh Portugis dan Spanyol melalui aktivitas penjelajahan samudera dengan motif 3G (gold, glory, gospel);  Dilanjutkan dengan pendudukan wilayah yang ditemukan --eksplorasi sumberdaya alam dan sumberdaya manusia (perbudakan) --aktivitas perdagangan di Eropa, Kolonialisme didorong oleh ekspansi kapitalisme di Eropa. Modernisasi adalah perubahan masyarakat tradisional menuju masyarakat modern.

MASYARAKAT TRADISIONAL MEMILIKI CIRI SEBAGAI BERIKUT:

§  MENGANDALKAN SEKTOR PERTANIAN;

§  ILMU PENGETAHUAN DAN TEKNOLOGI MODERN BELUM BERKEMBANG;

§  INDUSTRI DAN PERDAGANGAN BELUM BERKEMBANG

§  IDENTIK DENGAN NEGARA DUNIA KETIGA

            Teori modernisasi lahir pasca berakhirnya perang dunia yang menciptakan situasi global yang bipolar – blok liberal vs blok komunis. Masyarakat modern memiliki ciri sebagai berikut :

o   Mengandalkan sektor industri dan perdagangan

o   Ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi modern berkembang

o   Identik dengan dunia pertama

                Gagasan Marx tentang perubahan masyarakat mirip dengan konsep W.w Rostow. Perbedaan setiap tahapan ditentukan  oleh Means Production , Relation Of Production , Mode Of Production.

1.      Means Of Production

the ‘things’ which are needed for people to produce goods. These include tools and equipment, as well as land, crops and mineral reserves;

2.      Relation Of Production

the division of labour – who does what in the production process. Also includes who decides what is produced and how it is produces, so includes the possibility of unequal decision-making and power. This can be based on who owns the means of production;

3.      Mode Of Production

the system of social relation organizing production. This includes the relations of production, as well as the state apparatur and the legal system. It also includes cultural norms and ideologies about the way society should work;

            Neoliberalisme adalah Seperangkat ide/ajaran/faham yang mengagung-agungkan pasar bebas (free market) sebagai mekanisme sosial seluruh dimensi kehidupan manusia, baik sebagai individu maupun sebagai kelompok. Neoliberalisme merupakan generasi penerus ide-ide yang pernah dilontarkan Adam Smith.  Neoliberalisme bisa dijelaskan dari 3 (tiga) dimensi, yakni:
1. Dimensi ideologi
2. Dimensi mode of governance
3. Dimensi kebijakan

                        Neoliberalisme meyakini bahwa free market world merupakan instrumen terbaik untuk menciptakan dunia yang lebih baik. Akar mode of governance neoliberal adalah nilai-nilai entrepreneurial (kewirausahaan) seperti kompetisi, self-interest, dan desentralisasi.

            Neoliberalisme menyukai devolusi kekuasan politik ke dalam unit-unit kecil. Neoliberalisme mengadopsi the self-regulating free market untuk menjalankan roda pemerintahan. Wujud nyata neoliberalism dalam kebijakan publik dapat diekspresikan ke dalam formula D-L-P, yakni (D)eregulation perekonomian; (L)iberalisasi perdagangan dan industri; dan (P)rivatisasi perusahaan-perusahaan milik negara.

            Gelombang neoliberalisme II: 1990-2000

¡  Ide utama Bill Clinton: super-capitalism atau turbo-capitalism dapat dikombinasikan dengan program-program kesejahteraan sosial dan memperbesar responsibilitas korporasi.

¡  Ide utama Tony Blair: mencari dan merealisasikan jalan tengah ditengah perseteruan antara Keynesian yang dianggap kekiri-kirian (pro negara) dan Smithian/Reaganomics/Thatcherism yang cenderung ke kanan (pro pasar).

¡  Bill Clinton (Presiden Amerika Serikat): globalisme pasar

¡  Perdagangan bebas akan menghasilkan kesejahteraan bagi negara-negara maju dan negara-negara berkembang. Perdagangan bebas juga harus diiringi dengan serangkaian aksi untuk memperbaiki keadilan sosial dan lingkungan.

¡  Membantu Rusia (tatkala itu dipimpin Boriz Yeltzin) beralih dari sosialisme ke kapitalisme dengan mengirimkan puluhan tenaga ahli;

¡  Menandatangani Undang-Undang Reformasi Kesejahteraan (the Welfare Reform Act);

¡  Mendorong penerapan mode of governance ala neoliberal yang menekankan efisiensi dan profit oriented dalam menjalankan roda pemerintahan;

¡  Mendukung pengelolaan pelayanan publik oleh pihak swasta;

Classic dependency school has emerged and over-emphasized the external conditions, which shapep the underdevelopment of third world. Furthermore the classic dependency stressed the harmful effect of colonialism and international division of labor. It also argued that the enequal relationship between the metropolis-satelite would create technical dependency and the development of underdevelopment. Consequently, it seemed many of classic dependency researchers promoted the socialist revolution in order to eradicate the external condition, wich imposed to underdevelopment of thirdworld.

Cardoso (1973): Associated-Dependent Development in Brazil

In this work, he pointed out that the sift from the brazilian populist regime to millitary regime was represented as the pursuing of a new model of “associated-dependent development” in Brazil. He added that there were many new activities, which has been done by millitary regime in Brazil. The other political actors in Cardoso’s model is the multinational corporation, wich ssociated with the internationalized sector bourgeois, formed the new production involving the partnership between the international monopolies and local enterprise.

Cardoso (1979): Dependency and Development in Latin America

Cardoso began his research by explaining the condition of latin america countries in the late 1950. Most of Latin America countries still reiled on foreign market by exporting raw materil and this kind of development strategies would result discountinuing development. Latin America countries would continue to be linked to the world market if they have assured the expansion of domestic market. The concept of dependence tries to give meaning to a series of events and situasions, wich occur together, and to make empiricial situations understandable in the terms of the wy internal an external structural components are linked (cardoso: 1979: p.15).

Comparison of The Classic Dependency and The New Dependency (Caedoso’s work)

There are some improvements of new dependency theories have made, particularly in Cardoso’s work. The new dependency perspective has modified some of the classical dependency perspective although in same cases, they still share the same concept such as focus research is tird world countries, national level of analysis, and center – periphery dependency.

Methodology

The classic dependency studies arose as critique of the modernizations theories, but somehow, the classic dependency theories paralleled to the marxis revolutionary ideology. Consequently, instead of providing a scientific analysis of what has actually happened in third world countries, the concept of dependency has become an all purpose of explanation for everything that is wrong in the third world countries. For santos and Frank, the experience of colonialism has shaped the development of underdevelopment. As the explanation of that, Frank has distinguished three main stages or periods thatshaped the underdevelopment in the third world the mercantilist (1500 – 1700), the industrial capitalist (1700 -1870), and the imperialist. These periods has shared im;portant developments in the world process of capital accumulations, concentrating especially on the exchange relations between the metropolis and the periphery.

On The Concepts of Dependency

From the viewpoint classic dependency, dependency is result of the imposition of external condition on the third world. Moreover the dependency has been pointed out as the important factor that formed the unbalance development of the metropolis – satellite in the Frank’s work and dominant – dependent in Dos Santos’s work. According to Frank, this mechanism has its origin from the colonial period and extended until now. The national cities in the third world become the satellite and the western cities become metropolis, which absorbed the economic surplus of the third world.

On Policy Implication

Most of the classic dependency researcher emphasized the harmful effect of dependency. The argued that there would be extraversion, hypertrophy, technical dependency, and the development of underdevelopment, and so on in the third world. To cope with those situations, many classic dependency researches promoted the radical strategies of socialist revolution. It was showed in Frank’s work. He said that it is incorrect to argue that industrialization and development occur only when a country is closed linked to the west. The satellite should self-reliable and not rely only to the metropolis, because when their relationship weak to the metropolis, they will able to initiate marked autonomous industrialization growth ( Harrison: 1988 ). However, this policy implication did not suitable with the real fact, wich was showed by the rapid development of south Korea and Taiwan, although they were once the colonies of Japan.

Conclusion

The Cardoso’s analysis in more sophisticated than the classical dependency studies. His work has added the lack of explanation in the classical work and emphasizes broader explanation on what happen in the third world. However, his work does not stop until examining the internal condition of the third world and formulating what the called as political alliance, which promoted associated-dependent development. Has also assert that these political alliance has many weaknesses, for instance, it created the “ class monopoly “ yhat based on the agro-export sector controlled by large landholder, and the power struggle between various groups of dominant class. To cope with these situations, he asserted that there should be stable relationship between the urban bourgeeoisie and the industrial bourgeoisie. Cardoso’s research has shaped the direction of empirical studies in the dependency school and started a whole new investigation on dependent development in the third world.

There were many aktivities in the capitalist world economy that could not be eplained by both the mordernization and dependency theoriest. For explaining this, the new researcher tried to find another explanation base on: first, remarkable rate of economic growth of East Asia countries such as Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Second, the crisis in the socialist states, such as the crisis of Sino-Soviet spit, the failure of cultural revolution, economic stagnation, and gradual opening of investment. Third, there was crisis in the US capitalism, which caused by watergate crisis, oil embargo, Vietnam war, and the rising of protectionism.

Theoritical Heritage

According to Kaye (1979), the neo-Marxist and French Anales School influenced Wallerstein World system perspective. First, the neo-Marxist he has learned was based on his experience in the Africa countries. Second, another thing that influenced Wallerstein’s work is French Anales School.

Methodology

From his view, traditional scienfic theories have closed many important research question rather to open it and could not explain the real historical alternatives. first, the social disiplines have organization with boundaries, structures, and personal to deffend their collective interest. Second, there was the separation between history and social sciences analysis. Third, human being are organized in entities we may call societies, which constitute the fundamental social frameworks within which human life is lived. Fourth, capitalism is a system base on competition between free producers using free labour with free commodities, free meaning its availabillity for sale and purchase on a market.

The  Semiperiphery Countries

Wallerstein proposed trimodal model, core, semiperiphery, periphery, instead bimodal to explain the capitalist world neeeds the semiperiphery for two reasson: first, there should be the creation of the middle sectors in the world that bette off than the lower countries. Second, there should the countries, which ale ti absorb the capital from the declining sector in the capitalist sector. In relation with that, Wallerstein stated that it is important for periphery country to move to the semiperiphery status. He asserted that the periphery country shoul pratice the three strategies of development. First, seizing the chance refered to activity that tried to expand outward, to substitute an external market for an internal market, and produced the products, which core countries no longer bother to manufacture. Second, promotion by invitation refered to the activity to invite the foreign investmen into semiperiphery country. Third, self-realience refered to the activity that built the economy independence.

History of the Capitalist World-Economy

On his book “development lodestar or illusion”, he asserted that there were two periods of history of world-economy: from the sixteenth century to 1945 and from 1945 till now. According to him, a capitalist world-economy began to form centered in European continent in the sixteenth century and started to form the polarization zones. In this era, the commodity chain was concentrated to a disproportionate in some zones rather in other. According to Wallerstein,the growing disillusionment of antysystemic movement can be explained by two contracdiction goals.The first goal was to seek greter internal equlity (which involves fundamental social transformation),and the second goal was a desire of rapid economic growht (which involves catching up with the core states).

Policy Implication

The political impilcation for that movement based on the assumption,which the objective is truly egalitarian world.Wallerstein argued that we should substitute a new world level class movement for the prevailing national-level popular movement.But he thinks that the national level popular movement found themselves in impasse because of the goal of this movement was to capture the state power. To solve this problem,Wallerstein advocates a New World strategy that requires implementation by the world-level movement.Suppose that the antysystemic movement concentrated their energies everywere the twin goal,the rapid economic growht and internal equlity,will be achieved.

Comparison of Dependency and World-System Perspective

Althought the world system perspective can be traced from the dependency perspective,however,the world-system school becomes more advanced.There are some difference between them.First,the unit analysis for the world-system perspective is the world system whereas the dependency school focuses on the national level. Second,from historical methodology,Wallerstein perceives social reality as in a state of flux.Unlike the dependency school studies the historical dynamic of teh world economy. Third,the world-system has a unique theoritical structure.Instead of using bimodal assumption,the core and periphery,it used teh trimodal :core ,semiperyphery and peryphery. Fourth,based on the direction of development ,the Wallerstein world-system e perspective avoid the deterministic statement of the dependent development because of the core always exploits the peryphery. Fifht,the world-system perspective has extended their research focus.It not only studies the backward of the third world,but also the advanced of the capitalist cores,the socialist states and the future of capitalist world economy.

Kebersamaan bersama Administrasi Negara kelas A Fisip Unsri 2012

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